النشاط العسكري للدولة العثمانية في عهد السلطان بايزيد الاول )9041-9831(
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2021-11-14
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Abstract
Anatolia witnessed a series of political changes and developments in fourteenth century
AD, during that period, a political force emerged on the international arena, which had a
significant impact on the political and economic reality in the region. It was represented by
the establishment of the Ottoman State, which occupied an important space in academic
studies, especially in the stages of its power that extended from the reign of Sultan
Mohammed Al-Fatih, in the mid-fifteenth century AD until the end of the rule of Sultan
Süleyman the Magnificent in the middle of the sixteenth century AD. The academic studies
tried to pay attention to the stages of weakness of the Ottoman state, which began since the
reign of Sultan Selim II. In general, academic studies were concerned with the factors of
advancement and the causes of the collapse of the Ottoman state.
These studies were characterized by the fact that they were little in the study of the
early eras of the Ottoman state, which witnessed a series of important events at the
internal and external levels, which greatly affected in the history of the Ottoman State,
historians called that period the era of expansion and improvement, and the emergence of
the concept of the state among the Ottomans, perhaps due to the lack of sources that dealt
with that period of time, the repetition of information and lack of clarity in the sources, and
the ambiguity or exaggeration of others, as well as the exposure of the Ottoman State after
a battle Ankara to looting and pillage, therefore the Ottoman documents were damaged and
burned by the Timurid forces, which contributed to the lack of information about that time
period, and which led to the researcher’s fear of going into this midst.
The period of the rule of Sultan Bayezid I is one of the most important periods in the
history of the Ottoman State, because of the events and developments it witnessed,
foremost of which was the country’s adoption of the strategy of external conquests towards
Anatolia and the Balkans, and the development in the state’s administrative, economic,
political, urban and military systems, so we decided to study this topic to give a clear
picture of the state The Ottoman State during the reign of Sultan Bayezid I, to shed light on
all levels. We set the year 1389 as the beginning of the study because it is the year in which
Sultan Bayezid I came to power in the Ottoman State, while the thesis stopped at the
knowledge of 1402 because it was the year that witnessed the outbreak of the Battle of
Ankara between the Ottoman and Timurid states, the defeat of the Ottomans and the
capture of Sultan Bayezid I in captivity and the end of his rule, which led to The collapse of
the Ottoman State.
The importance of choosing a research topic lies in the fact that the era (1389-1402)
did not have a previous study, nor did an independent academic research study, and the
Iraqi library lacked comprehensive research on this subject, so I chose this topic to present
a scientific, historical and analytical study of the Ottoman state in the late fourteenth
century AD, given the internal and external developments that period witnessed, due to its
importance in Ottoman history and its impact on its policy in the later years of the Ottoman
State.
The thesis was divided into an introduction, a preface, four chapters and a conclusion.
The division relied on the unity of the subject in presenting events. Each chapter deals with
an integrated topic in itself. The preamble dealt with (The emergence of the Ottoman state,
its expansion and its organizations until Sultan Bayezid I took power in 1389). The
preamble included the emergence of the Ottoman State since its first reigns were during
B
the rule of Ertugrul , who expanded at the expense of the Byzantines, which expanded
during the reign of his son Osman, founder of the Ottoman State. The military operations
did not stop but achieved a great achievement during the reign of Orkhan, who expanded
the influence of the state through his crossing into European lands, and Sultan Murad I
sought to establish the pillars of the state and made it fearsome side, strong and a coherent
political entity, then developed administrative systems that were characterized by accuracy
and organization, which contributed to transforming it from Tribe to emirate and then to
state.
The first chapter reviewed (Sultan Bayezid I’s assumption of power and the
accompanying events and organizations in internal affairs), the chapter included three
sections: The first section dealt with (the social, political and military formation of Sultan
Bayezid I) in which we dealt with the life of the Sultan, his personality and biography, by
reviewing his birth, education, titles, administrative positions before he came to power , his
military skills through his participation in military campaigns with his father that led to
Improving his administrative and military skills, his marital life, and the number of his
children.
We also clarified some of the issues that were raised about the personality of Sultan
Bayezid I, including the issue of drinking wine, hold him in an iron cage, and various
accounts about his death. The second section focused on (the arrival of Sultan Bayezid I to
power and the events that accompanied it), by studying the circumstances that paved the
way for Sultan Bayezid I to reach the power after the killing of his father, Murad I, on the
battlefield of Kosovo in 1389. We dealt with the issue of his execution of his brother
Yaqoub Chalabi, by addressing the different historical accounts, and then comparing this
event with similar events previously. The third section was devoted to following up the
internal organizations of the Ottoman state during the reign of Sultan Bayezid I. It dealt
with his interest in the internal affairs of the Ottoman state and the organization of its
political, economic, military, judicial and urban affairs, which clearly reflected the change in
the general situation in the Ottoman State.
The second chapter entitled (The wars of Sultan Bayezid I with the Turkmen emirates
in Anatolia 1389-1399) it dealing with the foreign policy of Sultan Bayezid I towards the
Turkmen emirates, which differed in form and content from the policy of the previous
sultans. The chapter included four sections, the first dealt with (The first and second
Anatolian campaign 1389-1391), which included a study of military activity at the
beginning of his reign, and the efforts that he made to lay the foundations of the central
system by eliminating the rebellion of the ruler of the Karaman emirate in Anatolia with
Turkmen emirates in western Anatolia. During these two campaigns, the Sultan annexed
the Turkmen emirates to the Ottoman State once and for all, including (Saroukhan, Aydin,
Manitcha, Hamid, Karmian and Takka), then signed a peace agreement with the Karaman
prince Aladdin, and after that he seized the city of the Alashair, the last stronghold of the
Byzantines. The second section dealt with (The third Anatolian campaign 1392-1393) led
by Sultan Bayezid I against the Emirate of Jindar after its alliance with Judge Burhan Addin,
ruler of Sivas and Prince Alaa Addin Al-Qarmani, as a result of the Sultan’s annexation of
that emirate to his possessions, as well as the military operations he led in northern
Anatolia, Sinop declared its submission to the Ottoman State.
The third topic included (Sultan Bayezid I’s policy towards the Emirate of Qaraman and
Judge Burhan Addin 1396-1398), which represented the fourth Anatolian campaign, after
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Prince Alaa Addin took advantage of Sultan Bayezid I’s preoccupation in the Balkans, he
attacked Ankara and captured its ruler, but the Sultan attacked the emirate, Alaa Addin
tried to fix the matter, but failed, which led to his killing, then the Sultan headed to the
north, specifically Janik, and that area was subjected to the influence of the Ottoman State,
thus only Judge Burhan Addin remained the only competitor in Anatolia. The Sultan took
advantage of his killing by the hand of Kara Osman Yolk, and the people of the city of Sivas
asked for help from him, he seized the area.
The fourth section is devoted to (Ottoman-Mamluk relations during the reign of Sultan
Bayezid I 1389-1399) by examining the roots of those relations since the era of Sultan
Murad I.
Relations between the two countries have clearly improved due to the approach of
Timur’s threat to the region, but the generality of those relations was characterized by the
exchange of letters and gifts between them, after the death of Sultan Barquq and the arrival
of his son Faraj to power, the relations between the two countries took another turn. Sultan
Bayezid I tried to expand his influence, taking advantage of the conditions of the Mamluk
state, so he occupied Malatya and Bustan, which negatively affected the Ottoman-Mamluk
relations.
The third chapter consisted of six topics, which came under the title (Battles of Sultan
Bayezid I the Balkans 1389-1402). The first section (The Ottoman expansion in the Balkans
during the reign of Sultan Bayezid I 1389-1394) sheds light on the military activity of
Sultan Bayezid I in the Balkans after the Battle of Kosovo, he subdued the Serbs, Bulgarians
and Wallachians, then extending his influence to Greece. He used the policy of concluding
agreements with these countries, and he held a meeting in the city of Siris in 1394, which is
evidence of the strength of the Ottoman State in that period. The second section, entitled
(The Ottoman-Hungarian conflict 1389-1394) dealt with the nature of the Ottoman Hungarian conflict, especially after the victories of the Ottoman State in the Balkans, which
made the Serbian kingdom worried and began to organize its military affairs, especially in
the border areas that witnessed constant military skirmishes between the two sides. The
third section dealt with (the battle of Rovine in 1395) that took place between the Ottoman
State and the Emirate of Wallachia, after the Ottomans were defeated in the Battle of
Karanovasa in 1394. The Sultan himself led a military campaign against Wallachns. At the
beginning of the battle, the victory was in favor of the Emirate of Wallachia, but the
withdrawal of the Boyaris' support helped Sultan Bayezid I to achieve victory over Merjah
I. The fourth section focused on (Ottoman-Byzantine relations 1389-1394) which was
characterized by the clear and explicit interference of the Ottoman State in the internal
affairs of the Byzantine State. The fifth section studied (the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 and
its results) by knowing the reasons that led to the establishment of the European alliance,
and the efforts of King Sigismund to establish it, as well as the measures he took in order to
develop a plan to confront the Ottomans, which ending with a decisive victory of Ottoman
State, as a result of the military measures taken by the Ottoman State, thanks to efforts of
Bayezid I, that led to an increase in the influence of the Ottoman State in Europe. The last
section of the third chapter (Ottoman military activity after the Battle of Nicopolis) clarifies
the most important military campaigns sent by Sultan Bayezid I to many regions, the most
important of which are Bulgaria and Greece. The Sultan also tried to exploit the defeat of
the European alliance and imposed a siege on the city of Constantinople until 1402.
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We intended to make the fourth chapter shed light on the features of the Timurid Ottoman confrontation (1400-1402). This chapter includes five sections, first section is
entitled (The Timurid Advance Towards Eastern Anatolia) to get acquainted with the
political events leading up for Timur to go to Anatolia, and to impose his influence on large
areas, including Azerbaijan, Karaj and Iraq, so he had borders with the Ottoman State. In
the second section (The Causes of the Ottoman-Timurid Conflict), dealt with the most
important reasons that led to the outbreak of the conflict between Tamerlane and Sultan
Bayezid I. The most important of them is Tamerlane's incitement of the princes and kings
of Europe and the princes of the Turkmen emirates in Anatolia against the Ottoman State,
and the asylum of Sultan Ahmed Al-Jalairi with Sultan Bayezid I. The third section
(Correspondence between Timur and Sultan Bayezid I) focused on the most important
contents of those letters, which showed the nature of relations between the two countries,
and the nature of the personality of both Timur and Sultan Bayezid I, which was considered
one of the most important causes of the conflict between the two countries. The fourth
topic studied (Stages of the Ottoman- Timur conflict: Sivas - the first stage), and clarified
the most important stages of the confrontation between the two sides, which began in the
city of Sivas after it was besieged by the Timur forces in August 1400, which eliminated the
Ottoman garrison and looted the city. Sultan Bayezid I attacked the fortress of Kamakh and
Erzincan, which was under the protection of Timur. These events led to the major
confrontation between the two parties in the Battle of Ankara in 1402 and the capture of
Sultan Bayezid I. The fifth section dealt with the second stage of the confrontation, which
led to the defeat of the Ottoman State, and showed the extent of Timur’s skill in evasion and
military tactics. Sultan Bayezid I was captured in the battle, and the Ottoman State was
divided and entered into a civil war that lasted nearly eleven years.
The internal and external policy of the Ottoman state during the reign of Sultan Bayezid
I had positive repercussions. It contributed to the establishment of a major state at the end
of the fourteenth century AD, but at the same time it had negative effects through the
mistakes committed by Sultan Bayezid I, which was the reason for the collapse of the
Ottoman State in the Battle of Ankara.
Although the reign of Sultan Bayezid I lasted for a short period, which ended in defeat in
the end, his decisions and activities laid the ideological foundations of the Ottoman state, in
return for losing his allies and remaining alone in the face of the threat of Timu